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<title>Observation</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Observation</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="Observation_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Observation (disambiguation)">Observation (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

<p><b>Observation</b> in the <a href="Natural_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural sciences">natural sciences</a> refers to the active acquisition of information from a <a href="Primary_source" title="Primary source">primary source</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It involves the act of <a href="Noticing" class="mw-redirect" title="Noticing">noticing</a> or perceiving phenomena<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and gathering data based on direct engagement with the subject of study.

</p><p>In living organisms, observation typically occurs through the <a href="Sense" title="Sense">senses</a>. In <a href="Science" title="Science">science</a>, it often extends beyond unaided perception, involving the use of <a href="Scientific_instrument" title="Scientific instrument">scientific instruments</a> to detect, measure, and record <a href="Data_(information)" class="mw-redirect" title="Data (information)">data</a>. This enables the observation of phenomena not accessible to human senses alone.

</p><p>Observations in science are typically categorized as either <b>qualitative</b> or <b>quantitative</b>:

</p>

<ul><li><b>Qualitative observations</b> describe characteristics that are not expressed numerically, such as <a href="Color" title="Color">color</a>, <a href="Texture" class="mw-disambig" title="Texture">texture</a>, or <a href="Behavior" title="Behavior">behavior</a>.</li>

<li><b>Quantitative observations</b> involve numerical measurements, obtained through counting or using instruments to assign values to observed <a href="Phenomenon" title="Phenomenon">phenomena</a>.</li></ul>

<p>The term <i>observation</i> may refer both to the process of observing and to the information recorded as a result of that process.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Science">Science</h2></div>

<p>The <a href="Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> requires observations of <a href="List_of_natural_phenomena" title="List of natural phenomena">natural phenomena</a> to formulate and test <a href="Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypotheses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kosso_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kosso-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The method involves an iterative series of steps intended to generate and refine scientific knowledge:<sup id="cite_ref-Sadava_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sadava-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Shipman_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shipman-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ol><li>Ask a <a href="Question" title="Question">question</a> about a <a href="Phenomenon" title="Phenomenon">phenomenon</a></li>

<li>Make observations of the phenomenon</li>

<li>Formulate a <a href="Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesis</a> that tentatively answers the question</li>

<li><a href="Prediction" title="Prediction">Predict</a> logical, observable <a href="Consequent" title="Consequent">consequences</a> of the hypothesis that have not yet been investigated</li>

<li>Test the hypothesis' predictions through <a href="Experiment" title="Experiment">experiments</a>, <a href="Observational_study" title="Observational study">observational study</a>, <a href="Field_research" title="Field research">field study</a>, or <a href="Simulation" title="Simulation">simulations</a></li>

<li>Draw a <a href="Logical_consequence" title="Logical consequence">conclusion</a> from the collected <a href="Data" title="Data">data</a>, revise the hypothesis, or propose a new one, and <a href="Reproducibility" title="Reproducibility">repeat</a> the process</li>

<li>Write a <a href="Protocol_(science)" title="Protocol (science)">descriptive method</a> of observation and the <a href="Result" title="Result">results</a> or conclusions reached</li>

<li>Submit the findings for <a href="Peer_review" title="Peer review">peer review</a> by researchers experienced in the same area of study</li></ol>

<p>Each step depends on reliable and reproducible observations, which form the basis for scientific reasoning and validation of results.

</p><p>Observations play a role in both the second and fifth steps of the <a href="Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>. However, the principle of <a href="Reproducibility" title="Reproducibility">reproducibility</a> requires that observations made by different individuals be comparable and consistent.

Human <a href="Sense" title="Sense">sense</a> impressions are <a href="Subjectivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjectivity">subjective</a> and yield <a href="Qualitative_data" class="mw-redirect" title="Qualitative data">qualitative data</a>, which are difficult to standardize, record, or compare across observers. To address this limitation, the use of <a href="Measurement" title="Measurement">measurement</a> was developed as a means of producing objective, quantitative observations.

</p><p>Measurement involves comparing the observed phenomenon to a <a href="Standard_(metrology)" title="Standard (metrology)">standard unit</a>, which may be defined by an artifact, a process, or a shared convention. This standard must be reproducible and accessible to all observers. The result of the measurement process is a numerical value that represents the number of standard units corresponding to the observation.

</p><p>By reducing observations to numerical values, measurement enables consistent documentation and facilitates comparison. Two observations that yield the same measured value are considered equivalent within the <a href="Measurement" title="Measurement">resolution</a> or precision of the process.

</p><p>Human <a href="Sense" title="Sense">senses</a> are limited in range and accuracy and are subject to errors in perception, such as those caused by <a href="Optical_illusion" title="Optical illusion">optical illusions</a>. These limitations affect the reliability and precision of unaided observations in scientific inquiry.

</p><p>To overcome these limitations, various <a href="Scientific_instrument" title="Scientific instrument">scientific instruments</a> have been developed to extend and enhance human observational capabilities. Instruments such as <a href="Weighing_scale" title="Weighing scale">weighing scales</a>, <a href="Clock" title="Clock">clocks</a>, <a href="Telescope" title="Telescope">telescopes</a>, <a href="Microscope" title="Microscope">microscopes</a>, <a href="Thermometer" title="Thermometer">thermometers</a>, <a href="Camera" title="Camera">cameras</a>, and <a href="Tape_recorder" title="Tape recorder">tape recorders</a> assist in making more accurate and consistent measurements of phenomena that are within the range of human perception.

</p><p>In addition, some instruments make it possible to detect and record phenomena that are otherwise imperceptible to the senses. These include devices like <a href="PH_indicator" title="PH indicator">indicator dyes</a>, <a href="Voltmeter" title="Voltmeter">voltmeters</a>, <a href="Spectrometer" title="Spectrometer">spectrometers</a>, <a href="Infrared_camera" class="mw-redirect" title="Infrared camera">infrared cameras</a>, <a href="Oscilloscope" title="Oscilloscope">oscilloscopes</a>, <a href="Interferometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Interferometer">interferometers</a>, <a href="Geiger_counter" title="Geiger counter">Geiger counters</a>, and <a href="Radio_receiver" title="Radio receiver">radio receivers</a>. Such tools enable scientists to observe events and processes occurring beyond the limits of natural human perception.

</p><p>One challenge encountered across scientific disciplines is that the act of observation can influence the process being observed, potentially altering the outcome. This phenomenon is known as the <i><a href="Observer_effect_(physics)" title="Observer effect (physics)">observer effect</a></i>. For instance, measuring the air pressure in an automobile tire typically requires letting out a small amount of air, which in turn changes the pressure being measured.

</p><p>In many areas of science, the effects of observation can be minimized to negligible levels through the use of advanced and more precise instruments. These tools help ensure that the measurement process interferes as little as possible with the system under study.

</p><p>When considered as a physical process, all forms of observation—whether performed by humans or instruments—involve some form of amplification. As such, observation is a thermodynamically <a href="Irreversibility" class="mw-redirect" title="Irreversibility">irreversible process</a> that results in an increase in <a href="Entropy" title="Entropy">entropy</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Paradoxes">Paradoxes</h2></div>

<p>In certain scientific fields, the results of observation vary depending on factors that are not typically significant in everyday experience. These variations are often illustrated through apparent "<a href="Paradox" title="Paradox">paradoxes</a>", where an event appears different when observed from two distinct perspectives, seemingly contradicting "common sense".

</p>

<ul><li><b>Relativity:</b> In <a href="Relativistic_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Relativistic physics">relativistic physics</a>, which addresses phenomena at velocities close to the <a href="Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a>, different observers may record different values for properties such as length, time, and mass, depending on their relative velocity with respect to the object being observed. For example, in the <a href="Twin_paradox" title="Twin paradox">twin paradox</a>, one twin undertakes a high-speed journey and returns younger than the twin who remained on Earth. This outcome is consistent with the principles of relativity: time passes more slowly in reference frames moving at high velocities relative to an observer. In relativistic physics, all observations must be described in relation to the <a href="Frame_of_reference" title="Frame of reference">frame of reference</a> of the observer.</li></ul>

<ul><li><b>Quantum mechanics:</b> In <a href="Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>, which examines systems at atomic and subatomic scales, it is fundamentally impossible to observe a system without influencing it. In this context, the observer becomes part of the system being measured. Quantum systems are described by a <a href="Wave_function" title="Wave function">wave function</a>, which often exists in a <a href="Quantum_superposition" title="Quantum superposition">quantum superposition</a> of multiple possible states. When an observation or measurement is made, the system is always found in a definite state—not in a mixture. The act of measurement appears to cause the <a href="Wave_function_collapse" title="Wave function collapse">wave function collapse</a>, transitioning the system from a superposition to a single, determinate state. This process is referred to as <i>observation</i> or <i>measurement</i>, regardless of whether it is part of a deliberate experimental setup.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biases">Biases</h2></div>

<p>Human senses do not function like an impartial recording device such as a video <a href="Camcorder" title="Camcorder">camcorder</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaw_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaw-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Perception occurs through a complex, largely unconscious process of <a href="Abstraction" title="Abstraction">abstraction</a>, in which certain elements of sensory input are selected and retained, while others are discarded.

</p><p>This selection process depends on an internal model of the world—referred to in psychology as a <i><a href="Schema_(psychology)" title="Schema (psychology)">schema</a></i>—that is shaped by past experiences. Sensory information is interpreted and stored based on this schema. During recall, gaps in memory may be unconsciously filled with information consistent with the schema, a process known as <i><a href="Reconstructive_memory" title="Reconstructive memory">reconstructive memory</a></i>.

</p><p>The degree of attention given to different aspects of a perceptual experience is influenced by an individual's internal value system, which prioritizes information based on perceived importance. As a result, two individuals observing the same event may remember it differently, potentially disagreeing on factual details. This subjectivity is a known limitation of <a href="Eyewitness_testimony" title="Eyewitness testimony">eyewitness testimony</a>, which research has shown to be frequently unreliable.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In scientific practice, rigorous methods are employed to minimize such observational biases. These include careful documentation of experimental data, distinguishing clearly between raw observations and inferred conclusions, and implementing procedures such as <a href="Blind_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Blind experiment">blind</a> and <a href="Double_blind_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Double blind experiment">double blind experiment</a> designs to control for subjective influence.

</p><p>Several of the more important ways observations can be affected by human psychology are given below.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Streetlight_effect">Streetlight effect</h3></div>

<ul><li><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Streetlight_effect" title="Streetlight effect">Streetlight effect</a></div></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Confirmation_bias">Confirmation bias</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">confirmation bias</a></div>

<p>Human observations are biased toward confirming the observer's conscious and unconscious expectations and view of the world; we "<i>see what we expect to see</i>".<sup id="cite_ref-Shermer_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shermer-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In psychology, this is called <a href="Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">confirmation bias</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Shermer_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shermer-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the object of scientific research is the <a href="Discovery_(observation)" title="Discovery (observation)">discovery</a> of new phenomena, this bias can and has caused new discoveries to be overlooked; one example is the discovery of <a href="X-ray" title="X-ray">x-rays</a>. It can also result in erroneous scientific support for widely held cultural myths, on the other hand, as in the <a href="Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">scientific racism</a> that supported ideas of racial superiority in the early 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Gardner_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gardner-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Processing_bias">Processing bias</h3></div>

<p>Modern scientific instruments frequently perform extensive processing of "observations" before the results are presented to human observers. With the increasing use of computerized instruments, it can be difficult to determine the boundary between the act of observation and the interpretation or conclusion drawn from that data.

</p><p>This issue is particularly relevant in the context of <a href="Digital_image_processing" title="Digital image processing">digital image processing</a>, where images used as experimental data in <a href="Scientific_journal" title="Scientific journal">scientific publications</a> are sometimes enhanced to emphasize specific features. While such enhancement can aid in highlighting relevant aspects of the data, it may also inadvertently reinforce the researcher's hypothesis, introducing a form of bias that is challenging to quantify.

</p><p>In response, some journals have established explicit guidelines regarding permissible types of image processing in published research. To safeguard against processing bias, many computerized systems are designed to store copies of the unprocessed or "raw" data captured by sensors. Likewise, scientific best practices require that original, unaltered images used as research data be preserved and made available upon request.

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<ul><li><a href="Deixis" title="Deixis">Deixis</a></li>

<li><a href="Extrospection" class="mw-redirect" title="Extrospection">Extrospection</a></li>

<li><a href="Introspection" title="Introspection">Introspection</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_cognitive_biases" title="List of cognitive biases">List of cognitive biases</a></li>

<li><a href="Metaphysics_of_presence" title="Metaphysics of presence">Metaphysics of presence</a></li>

<li><a href="Naturalistic_observation" title="Naturalistic observation">Naturalistic observation</a></li>

<li><a href="Observation_unit" class="mw-redirect" title="Observation unit">Observation unit</a></li>

<li><a href="Observational_astronomy" title="Observational astronomy">Observational astronomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Observational_error" title="Observational error">Observational error</a></li>

<li><a href="Observational_learning" title="Observational learning">Observational learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Observational_study" title="Observational study">Observational study</a></li>

<li><a href="Observable_quantity" class="mw-redirect" title="Observable quantity">Observable quantity</a></li>

<li><a href="Observations_and_Measurements" title="Observations and Measurements">Observations and Measurements</a></li>

<li><a href="Observatory" title="Observatory">Observatory</a></li>

<li><a href="Observer_effect_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Observer effect (disambiguation)">Observer effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Noumenon" title="Noumenon">Noumenon</a></li>

<li><a href="Present" title="Present">Present</a></li>

<li><a href="Theory_ladenness" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory ladenness">Theory ladenness</a></li>

<li><a href="Uncertainty_principle" title="Uncertainty principle">Uncertainty principle</a></li>

<li><a href="Unobservable" title="Unobservable">Unobservable</a></li></ul>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Observation" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Observation">Observation</a></span>.</div></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/observation" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:observation">Observation</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div>

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</li>

<li id="cite_note-Sadava-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sadava_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMendezHellerBerenbaum2009" class="citation book cs1">Mendez, Carl Cedrick L.; Heller, H. Craig; Berenbaum, May (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ANT8VB14oBUC&q=%22scientific+method%22+observation+hypothesis+experiment+conclusion&pg=PA14"><i>Life: The Science of Biology, 9th Ed</i></a>. US: Macmillan. pp. <span class="nowrap">13–</span>14. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1429219624</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Shipman-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Shipman_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFShipmanWilsonTodd2009" class="citation book cs1">Shipman, James; Wilson, Jerry D.; Todd, Aaron (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7feg9MZMPQMC&q=%22scientific+method%22+observation+hypothesis+experiment+conclusion&pg=PA4"><i>Introduction to Physical Science, 12th Ed</i></a>. Cengage Learning. p. 4. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0538731874</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Shaw-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Shaw_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFShaw2016" class="citation web cs1">Shaw, Julia (2016-08-12). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/mind-guest-blog/what-experts-wish-you-knew-about-false-memories/">"Not all memories happened: What experts wish you knew about false memories"</a>. <i>Scientific American</i>. Nature America, Inc<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-08-13</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Research_Council2014" class="citation book cs1">National Research Council (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17226/18891"><i>Identifying the Culprit: Assessing Eyewitness Identification</i></a>. Washington, DC: <a href="The_National_Academies_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="The National Academies Press">The National Academies Press</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17226%2F18891">10.17226/18891</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-309-31059-8</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Shermer-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shermer_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shermer_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFShermer2002" class="citation book cs1">Shermer, Michael (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LYIkAkBE7tsC&pg=PA299"><i>Why People Believe Weird Things: Pseudoscience, Superstition, and Other Confusions of Our Time</i></a>. MacMillan. pp. <span class="nowrap">299–</span>302. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>1429996765</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Gardner-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gardner_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFGardner1957" class="citation book cs1">Gardner, Martin (1957). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X0HCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA152"><i>Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science</i></a>. Dover Publications, Inc. pp. <span class="nowrap">152–</span>163. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780486131627</bdi>.</cite> <span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment">ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)</span></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

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</style><div id="Philosophy_of_science517" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li>

<li><a href="A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li>

<li><a href="Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a>

<ul><li><a href="Mill's_Methods" class="mw-redirect" title="Mill's Methods">Mill's Methods</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Commensurability (philosophy of science)">Commensurability</a></li>

<li><a href="Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li>

<li><a href="Construct_(philosophy)" title="Construct (philosophy)">Construct</a></li>

<li><a href="Correlation" title="Correlation">Correlation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Correlation_function" title="Correlation function">function</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Creative_synthesis" title="Creative synthesis">Creative synthesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li>

<li><a href="Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">Empirical evidence</a></li>

<li><a href="Experiment" title="Experiment">Experiment</a>

<ul><li><a href="Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">design</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">Explanatory power</a></li>

<li><a href="Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li>

<li><a href="Functional_contextualism" title="Functional contextualism">Functional contextualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypothesis</a>

<ul><li><a href="Alternative_hypothesis" title="Alternative hypothesis">alternative</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Ignoramus_et_ignorabimus" title="Ignoramus et ignorabimus">Ignoramus et ignorabimus</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a></li>

<li><a href="Intertheoretic_reduction" title="Intertheoretic reduction">Intertheoretic reduction</a></li>

<li><a href="Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a></li>

<li><a href="Measurement" title="Measurement">Measurement</a></li>

<li><a href="Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li>

<li><a href="Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li>

<li><a href="Paradigm" title="Paradigm">Paradigm</a></li>

<li><a href="Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">Scientific evidence</a>

<ul><li><a href="Evidence-based_practice" title="Evidence-based practice">Evidence-based practice</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">Scientific law</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_pluralism" title="Scientific pluralism">Scientific pluralism</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Testability" title="Testability">Testability</a></li>

<li><a href="Theory" title="Theory">Theory</a>

<ul><li><a href="Theory_choice" title="Theory choice">choice</a></li>

<li><a href="Theory-ladenness" title="Theory-ladenness">ladenness</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">Underdetermination</a></li>

<li><a href="Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li>

<li><a href="Variable_and_attribute_(research)" title="Variable and attribute (research)">Variable</a>

<ul><li><a href="Control_variable" title="Control variable">control</a></li>

<li><a href="Dependent_and_independent_variables" title="Dependent and independent variables">dependent and independent</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li>

<li><a href="Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li>

<li><a href="Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">Constructive empiricism</a></li>

<li><a href="Constructive_realism" title="Constructive realism">Constructive realism</a></li>

<li><a href="Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li>

<li><a href="Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">Epistemological anarchism</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionism" title="Evolutionism">Evolutionism</a></li>

<li><a href="Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li>

<li><a href="Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">Hypothetico-deductive model</a></li>

<li><a href="Inductionism" title="Inductionism">Inductionism</a></li>

<li><a href="Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">Model-dependent realism</a></li>

<li><a href="Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a> / <a href="Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a> / <a href="Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li>

<li><a href="Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a> / <a href="Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>

<li><a href="Received_view_of_theories" title="Received view of theories">Received view</a> / <a href="Semantic_view_of_theories" title="Semantic view of theories">Semantic view of theories</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_essentialism" title="Scientific essentialism">Scientific essentialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_formalism" title="Scientific formalism">Scientific formalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a> / <a href="Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li>

<li><a href="Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li>

<li><a href="Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li>

<li><a href="Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy of...</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a>

<ul><li><a href="Philosophy_of_archaeology" title="Philosophy of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of economics">Economics</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Linguistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li>

<li><a href="Descriptive_research" title="Descriptive research">Descriptive science</a></li>

<li><a href="Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Exact_sciences" title="Exact sciences">Exact sciences</a></li>

<li><a href="Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li>

<li><a href="Hard_and_soft_science" title="Hard and soft science">Hard and soft science</a></li>

<li><a href="History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-science" title="Non-science">Non-science</a>

<ul><li><a href="Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Normative_science" title="Normative science">Normative science</a></li>

<li><a href="Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Questionable_cause" title="Questionable cause">Questionable cause</a></li>

<li><a href="Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li>

<li><a href="Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Rhetoric of science</a></li>

<li><a href="Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_philosophers_of_science" title="List of philosophers of science">Philosophers of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Precursors10" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Precursors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li>

<li><a href="Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li>

<li><a href="Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a></li>

<li><a href="Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

<ul><li><a href="Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li>

<li><a href="Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a></li>

<li><a href="Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Pierre Duhem</a></li>

<li><a href="Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a></li>

<li><a href="Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li>

<li><a href="Wilhelm_Windelband" title="Wilhelm Windelband">Wilhelm Windelband</a></li>

<li><a href="Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a></li>

<li><a href="Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li>

<li><a href="Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li>

<li><a href="C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a></li>

<li><a href="Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li>

<li><a href="Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li>

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